21 Lessons for the 21st Century

Introduction: Navigating the 21st Century

Yuval Noah Harari’s 21 Lessons for the 21st Century is a collection of essays that examines the most pressing political, technological, social, and existential questions facing humanity today. Unlike his previous books—Sapiens (about the past) and Homo Deus (about the future)—this work focuses on the present: the unstable transition period in which old stories and institutions are crumbling while new forces, especially technology and globalisation, reshape the world.

Harari’s central message is that we are facing a convergence of disruptive trends—artificial intelligence, biotechnology, climate change, nuclear risk, and cultural fragmentation—at a time when our traditional systems of meaning (religion, nationalism, and liberalism) are under strain. Instead of offering simple solutions, he encourages critical thinking, humility, and the ability to adapt. The book is structured into 21 “lessons,” grouped loosely into thematic clusters: technological challenge, political challenge, despair and hope, truth, and resilience.

1. Disillusionment: The Collapse of the Old Stories

Harari begins by arguing that the dominant ideological story of the late 20th century—liberalism—has been shaken. For a few decades after the Cold War, liberal democracy and free-market capitalism seemed to have “won” over fascism and communism. This fostered a belief that history was converging toward liberal democracy as the final form of government.

Yet the 21st century has brought multiple crises: financial meltdowns, rising inequality, ecological disruption, terrorism, and new authoritarian movements. People are losing faith both in liberal institutions and in the grand narratives that legitimized them. Fascism and communism are no longer credible alternatives, but liberalism itself looks fragile, besieged by nationalism, religious fundamentalism, and technological disruption.

Harari notes that the real challenge is not a return to old ideologies but the emergence of new, as-yet-undefined narratives better adapted to a high-tech, interconnected, and ecologically constrained world. Humanity now has immense power—nuclear weapons, genetic engineering, algorithmic control—but lacks a unifying story about how to use this power wisely.

2. Work: Automation, AI, and the End of Many Jobs

One of the most urgent questions of the 21st century is the future of work. Harari argues that advances in artificial intelligence and robotics are likely to eliminate or radically transform a vast number of jobs, not just in manual labor but increasingly in white-collar and professional domains.

Unlike previous waves of automation, which displaced humans from physical tasks, AI threatens to outperform humans in cognitive tasks such as pattern recognition, decision-making, and even aspects of creativity. Harari describes an emerging world in which algorithms diagnose disease more accurately than doctors, drive vehicles more safely than humans, and manage complex systems like logistics networks or financial markets.

This raises the specter of a “useless class”—large segments of the population whose economic value diminishes because machines can do their jobs more cheaply and efficiently. Retraining alone may not be enough, as AI repeatedly reshapes the job market faster than humans can adapt. Even if new jobs are created, there is no guarantee that billions of people can be continually reskilled throughout their lives.

Harari emphasizes that the core issue is not just unemployment but meaning. Many people derive identity, social status, and emotional fulfillment from their work. If jobs disappear or become precarious, societies will have to find new ways to provide people with income, community, and a sense of purpose—through mechanisms like universal basic income, lifelong learning, and new cultural narratives that detach dignity from paid employment.

3. Liberty: Big Data, Surveillance, and the Erosion of Freedom

The rise of digital technologies has created unprecedented opportunities for surveillance and control. Harari warns that we are entering an era of “digital dictatorships,” in which governments and corporations use data collection, machine learning, and biometric monitoring to understand and manipulate individuals at a granular level.

Traditional liberalism assumes individuals possess an inner self—an autonomous soul or free will—that cannot be fully known or controlled by others. The legitimacy of democracy rests on the idea that individuals know best what is good for them and can express it through voting and markets. But as data-based algorithms become better at understanding our desires, fears, and decision patterns, this premise is challenged.

Harari distinguishes between two types of data control: centralized (by authoritarian states) and decentralized (by corporate platforms). In both cases, power accrues to those who control the flow of information. The danger is less that “Big Brother” watches us and more that we willingly surrender control in exchange for convenience, entertainment, and personalized services.

Over time, algorithms might know us better than we know ourselves—predicting our political choices, purchasing behavior, and emotional vulnerabilities. This opens the door to subtle forms of manipulation, where our choices feel free but are heavily steered by recommendation systems and targeted advertisements. Harari stresses the need for updated political models that address this new form of power, as well as regulatory frameworks that safeguard privacy, autonomy, and the transparency of algorithms.

4. Equality: Who Owns the Data?

Harari suggests that data will become the most important resource of the 21st century, eclipsing land and industrial capital. The key political question becomes: who owns the data, and who benefits from it? If data and the AI systems trained on them are owned by a tiny elite—whether corporations or governments—then inequality could grow to unprecedented levels.

In such a scenario, the owners of data would not only accumulate wealth but also informational and predictive power over everyone else. This could create a new kind of class divide: an elite that increasingly upgrades itself biologically and cognitively, and a vast underclass that is economically and politically marginalized.

Harari warns that inequality in the 21st century might be more extreme than anything seen in previous eras because it could be built into biology. Advances in genetic engineering, brain-computer interfaces, and pharmaceuticals might enable the rich to enhance their bodies and minds, giving them permanent advantages that cannot be easily remedied by policy changes or social mobility.

To avoid such dystopian outcomes, societies must confront the issue of data ownership and access. Harari raises questions about whether data should be treated as private property, nationalized, or managed as a commons. He does not propose a single solution but calls for serious debate about how to distribute the benefits of AI and biotech widely rather than allowing them to concentrate in the hands of a few.

5. Community and Civilization: Global Problems, Local Identities

Harari points out a fundamental mismatch between the scale of our biggest problems and the scale at which our political loyalties operate. Issues like climate change, nuclear proliferation, pandemics, and disruptive technologies are global by nature; they cannot be solved by any single nation acting alone. Yet people still largely define their identity in national, religious, or tribal terms.

On one hand, globalization has created a single, integrated human civilization. Economies, communication networks, and knowledge systems are deeply interconnected. On the other hand, this integration has provoked backlash, as communities feel threatened by cultural homogenization, immigration, and the loss of traditional ways of life.

Harari distinguishes between “civilization” as a worldwide network of cooperation (science, trade, shared institutions) and “cultures” as varied local patterns of behavior and belief. He argues that humans can belong to a global civilization while still preserving diverse cultures. The challenge is psychological and political: can people expand their circle of empathy and cooperation to support global institutions without losing the sense of belonging that local identities provide?

Ultimately, Harari contends that solving 21st-century problems requires strengthening global cooperation—through international law, shared scientific standards, and transnational organizations—even as we negotiate tensions with nationalism and cultural particularity.

6. Nationalism: Its Power and Its Limits

Harari does not dismiss nationalism outright. He acknowledges that national stories have been powerful tools for building large-scale cooperation, creating welfare states, and mobilizing citizens to care about strangers within their borders. Nationalism encourages people to pay taxes, obey laws, and sometimes sacrifice their lives for the perceived common good.

However, nationalism is inherently limited in a world where many of the gravest threats are global. A purely nationalist perspective cannot adequately address climate change, nuclear risk, or technological disruptions that cross borders. If nations insist on absolute sovereignty and refuse to cooperate internationally, humanity as a whole may suffer.

Harari therefore advocates a balanced approach: recognize the constructive role of nationalism in providing social cohesion and a sense of belonging, but insist that it must be tempered by global responsibilities. Nations should see themselves as part of a larger human community sharing a common destiny on a finite planet.

7. Religion: Stories of Meaning in a Scientific Age

Religion, for Harari, is primarily a system of human-made stories that provide meaning, cohesion, and moral guidance to communities. He emphasizes that most religious doctrines are historically contingent and culturally specific; they evolve and adapt over time rather than delivering timeless, objective truths.

He differentiates between the ethical insights some religions foster—such as compassion, charity, or a sense of responsibility—and the factual claims many religious texts make about the origin of the universe, the nature of humanity, or divine intervention. Modern science challenges these factual claims, offering alternative explanations based on empirical evidence and testable theories.

Harari argues that when religious stories make concrete claims contrary to scientific evidence, they should not be granted immunity from criticism. At the same time, he notes that secular ideologies can also function like religions, with myths, rituals, and sacred principles (e.g., human rights, the nation, the free market).

As technological power grows, especially in biotechnology, humanity enters a realm once reserved for gods: redesigning life, altering evolution, and possibly engineering new forms of sentience. Traditional religions are ill-prepared to deal with the ethical and practical consequences of such power. Harari suggests that future moral frameworks will need to be grounded in a combination of scientific understanding and a clear-eyed recognition of our shared human vulnerabilities.

8. Immigration: Identity, Values, and Integration

Harari uses the debate over immigration to illustrate how complex identity politics has become in a globalized world. He argues that any honest discussion of immigration requires confronting three separate questions:

First, whether a host country is willing to allow immigrants in. Second, whether immigrants are willing to assimilate to local norms and values. Third, whether the host community is willing to change its identity as a result of immigration. Conflicts arise when participants in the debate unconsciously answer different questions than their opponents, leading to confusion and moral outrage.

For example, liberals may focus on the moral duty to help refugees (question one), while conservatives may focus on cultural preservation (questions two and three). Harari stresses that identities are not static: nations themselves are constantly evolving, inventing new traditions, and absorbing influences. However, this does not mean that any migration policy is automatically benign or that cultural anxieties are always illegitimate.

The broader lesson is that in addressing immigration, societies must be explicit about the terms of mutual change and adaptation, and they must acknowledge that both newcomers and host communities will be transformed by the encounter. The task is to manage this transformation consciously rather than pretending that identities are either immutable or irrelevant.

9. Terrorism: Fear, Power, and Disproportion

Harari frames terrorism as a form of psychological warfare, designed to leverage limited physical damage into massive political impact by exploiting human fear. Statistically, terrorism kills far fewer people than car accidents, obesity, or many diseases. Yet its emotional effect is magnified by media coverage and political responses.

Terrorists understand that modern states are often hypersensitive to violence against their citizens and that democracies in particular struggle to tolerate even small levels of risk. By orchestrating spectacular attacks, terrorists hope to provoke overreactions—wars, civil-liberties crackdowns, discrimination—that ultimately help them recruit followers or destabilize societies.

Harari argues that the most effective way to defeat terrorism is not necessarily through more violence or more surveillance, but through resilience and proportionate response. Societies should refuse to magnify the power of small terrorist groups by treating them as existential threats. Instead, they should focus on long-term strategies to address underlying grievances, integrate marginalized communities, and avoid policies that inadvertently strengthen extremist narratives.

10. War: Has Large-Scale War Become Obsolete?

In contrast to the constant media focus on violence and conflict, Harari notes that large-scale wars between major powers have become relatively rare since 1945. Nuclear deterrence, economic interdependence, and the declining profitability of territorial conquest have made traditional interstate war less attractive.

Whereas empires once gained wealth and power by invading and exploiting new lands, today the wealth of nations depends more on human capital, technology, and complex global supply chains. Destroying another country’s infrastructure or workforce can be economically self-defeating. Consequently, many powerful states prefer to wage cyberwars, proxy conflicts, or economic battles rather than full-scale invasions.

However, Harari warns against complacency. The very success of peace may erode the fear of war, and rising powers might miscalculate their chances of victory. Moreover, new forms of warfare—cyberattacks on critical infrastructure, autonomous weapons, AI-driven conflict—introduce unpredictable dynamics. While the old logic of territorial conquest is weaker, the potential for misjudgment, escalation, or technological accidents remains significant.

11. Humility: No Culture Has All the Answers

Harari calls for cultural humility in an interconnected world. No single civilization or religion holds a monopoly on wisdom, virtue, or truth. While each culture tends to see itself as central or superior, history shows that ideas, technologies, and moral innovations arise from many sources and often spread through complex exchanges.

He criticizes simplistic narratives of “Western civilization” as the sole driver of progress, noting contributions from Chinese, Indian, Islamic, African, and Indigenous traditions. Likewise, he challenges religious claims to unique moral insight, pointing out that moral progress has often occurred in tension with established religious authorities.

Humility means recognizing both the achievements and the crimes associated with any tradition—including one’s own. It also involves accepting that future generations are likely to see many of our cherished beliefs as misguided or immoral. This attitude, Harari suggests, is crucial if we are to learn from one another and build global cooperation without descending into cultural self-righteousness or self-hatred.

12. God: The Human Origins of Divine Stories

In examining the concept of God, Harari emphasizes that deities, as presented in religious traditions, are human constructs—stories that communities tell and retell, shaping their ethics, institutions, and sense of purpose. While individuals may have profound spiritual experiences, the institutionalized versions of these experiences are embedded in social and political contexts.

Religious stories often claim divine authority for laws and customs that arose in specific historical circumstances. This can lend stability and cohesion, but it can also hinder necessary change. Harari suggests that recognizing the human origins of religious narratives does not necessarily invalidate all their insights; instead, it allows believers and non-believers alike to critically evaluate which elements foster compassion and cooperation and which perpetuate prejudice or violence.

He argues that ethical reasoning and moral concern do not require belief in a supernatural lawgiver. Secular frameworks rooted in empathy, shared vulnerability, and rational deliberation can also support robust moral systems—perhaps better adapted to pluralistic, scientifically informed societies.

13. Secularism: Principles for a Pluralistic World

Harari defines secularism not as a doctrine of atheism but as a commitment to particular values and methods: the pursuit of truth through evidence and reason; the recognition of human fallibility; the willingness to compromise; and the prioritization of reducing suffering over enforcing dogma.

Secular societies aim to separate religious authority from political power, ensuring that public policies are justified through universal arguments rather than sectarian revelations. This separation protects both the state from religious domination and religions from political corruption.

Yet secularism itself can ossify into ideology if it is treated as beyond criticism. Harari stresses that secular principles must remain open to revision based on new evidence and moral reflection. In a diverse world, secular frameworks can provide a common ground where people of different faiths and worldviews can cooperate without needing to agree on metaphysical claims.

14. Ignorance: The Limits of Individual Knowledge

Harari underscores how little any individual understands about the complex systems that govern modern life. We rely on vast networks of experts and institutions to produce, validate, and apply knowledge. No single person, for example, truly understands all aspects of a smartphone, a financial system, or a healthcare network; we trust collective expertise.

This dependence on distributed knowledge makes humility and trust essential. However, it also creates vulnerabilities: when trust in institutions erodes, people may turn to conspiracy theories, charismatic leaders, or simplistic explanations. Harari argues that democracies function only when citizens accept that they personally cannot master everything and are willing to rely on scientific communities, professional norms, and peer review processes.

He warns against conflating ignorance with equality: the idea that every opinion is equally valid regardless of evidence or expertise. While democratic politics values each person’s moral worth and political voice, it does not mean that all factual claims are equally plausible. A central challenge of the 21st century is maintaining respect for expertise without sliding into technocracy or elitism.

15. Justice: Globalization and Fairness

Harari explores the difficulty of thinking about justice in a globalized economy. Many people hold intuitive notions of fairness derived from local interactions: if two people work equally hard, they should get similar rewards; if someone causes harm, they should bear the cost. But in global supply chains, causal links are diffuse and opaque.

For instance, the lifestyle of a consumer in a rich country may be indirectly supported by low-paid labor in another country, environmental degradation elsewhere, or complex financial instruments. Assigning responsibility and designing fair rules becomes far more complex than within a single village or nation-state.

Furthermore, historical injustices—slavery, colonialism, resource extraction—have shaped the current distribution of wealth and opportunities. Harari questions simplistic stories that attribute success solely to individual merit or cultural superiority. At the same time, he notes that assigning clear moral responsibility for long chains of historical and economic causation is difficult.

He suggests that justice in the 21st century will require new forms of international cooperation: global tax rules, labor standards, environmental regulations, and mechanisms to address inequality between nations as well as within them. Yet such mechanisms must navigate conflicting interests and narratives about what counts as “fair.”

16. Post-Truth: Myths, Power, and the Information Flood

Harari argues that “post-truth” is not entirely new. Human societies have always lived amid myths, propaganda, and biased narratives. What has changed is the scale, speed, and granularity of information and misinformation, facilitated by the internet and social media.

He points out that even respected institutions and nations built their legitimacy on carefully curated stories that often downplayed crimes or failures. The difference today is that it is harder to maintain a single, coherent narrative. Alternative stories can spread quickly, whether they are more accurate or more misleading.

Algorithms optimize for engagement, not truth. This creates incentives for sensationalism, outrage, and emotional manipulation. Harari warns that as AI tools generate increasingly convincing fake images, audio, and text, distinguishing reality from fabrication will become even harder.

The response, he suggests, cannot be a naive return to some imagined golden age of objectivity. Instead, societies must cultivate media literacy, critical thinking, and institutional safeguards for truth-seeking: independent journalism, transparent fact-checking, and accountability for powerful actors who systematically spread lies.

17. Science Fiction: Imagining Futures, Shaping Fears

Harari examines science fiction as a cultural lens through which societies explore hopes and fears about the future. Stories about AI, robots, aliens, and dystopian regimes often reveal more about current anxieties than realistic predictions of what will actually happen.

He warns that popular narratives can mislead public understanding of real technological risks and possibilities. For instance, many people imagine AI as human-like robots with consciousness and emotions, whereas the more pressing issue is non-conscious algorithms that invisibly influence decisions and behaviors at scale.

Similarly, dystopian tales of totalitarian states may obscure subtler forms of control exercised through consumer platforms, entertainment, and data monetization. Harari encourages readers to engage with science fiction critically: appreciate its imaginative power, but distinguish metaphor from likely reality, and avoid allowing cinematic fears to dominate rational analysis.

18. Education: Learning How to Learn and Adapt

Given the accelerating pace of change, Harari thinks deeply about what education should look like in the 21st century. Knowledge and skills acquired in youth may become obsolete within decades or even years. The old model—learn a profession, practice it for life—no longer fits a world of constant technological upheaval.

Harari argues that the most important skills will be:

The ability to learn new things throughout life, mental flexibility to adapt to changing conditions, emotional resilience in the face of uncertainty, and the capacity for critical thinking and collaboration. These “soft” skills may matter more than memorizing specific facts or mastering fixed technical routines.

He criticizes educational systems that emphasize rote learning, standardized tests, and obedience to authority. Instead, he favors curricula that cultivate curiosity, creativity, communication, and self-understanding. Children (and adults) need space to explore their minds and emotions, to understand how they think and feel, and to question the stories they are told by media, governments, and corporations.

Education, for Harari, must also include ethical reflection about technology: what it means to be human in an age of AI and bioengineering, how to navigate online life, and how to balance individual desires with global responsibilities.

19. Meaning: Stories, Suffering, and Purpose

Harari contends that humans are meaning-seeking animals. We interpret our lives through stories about who we are, where we come from, and what we should do. Religious narratives, national myths, and ideological frameworks have traditionally supplied such meaning.

In a secular, pluralistic world, many people feel a “crisis of meaning,” especially as traditional authorities lose influence. Harari argues that meaning is not an objective property of the universe but a human construction. Our stories can be empowering or destructive, inclusive or exclusionary. Recognizing their fictional character does not make them worthless; rather, it invites us to take responsibility for the stories we choose to inhabit.

He warns, however, against purely individualistic searches for meaning detached from broader communities and realities. Consumer culture often encourages people to pursue personal fulfillment through consumption, experiences, and self-expression, while ignoring larger social and ecological challenges. Harari suggests that a more robust sense of meaning might come from linking personal narratives to the wellbeing of other humans and the planet.

20. Meditation: Understanding the Mind from Within

In a strikingly personal chapter, Harari describes his long-term practice of meditation, particularly in the Vipassana tradition. He presents meditation as a method for observing the workings of one’s own mind in a systematic and disciplined way—complementary to, but distinct from, scientific investigation.

Harari argues that many of our biggest problems—stress, anxiety, hatred, confusion—arise because we misunderstand our own minds. We are often enslaved by fleeting thoughts and emotions, mistaking them for our “self.” Meditation trains attention and awareness, allowing practitioners to see mental events as temporary phenomena rather than absolute truths or commands.

This inner clarity can foster freedom: the freedom not to be swept away by fear-mongering, propaganda, or habitual reactions. Harari does not present meditation as a religious practice requiring dogma, but as a practical tool for self-knowledge and mental stability in a turbulent world.

At the collective level, he suggests that better understanding of the mind—through both contemplative practices and cognitive science—could help societies design institutions and technologies that align with human wellbeing rather than exploit our psychological vulnerabilities.

21. Conclusion: Clarity, Compassion, and Responsibility

Harari closes by emphasizing that the 21st century confronts humanity with unprecedented challenges and choices. Our technological powers have outstripped our political wisdom and emotional maturity. No one, including experts, can predict the future with confidence. That uncertainty can be frightening, but it also opens space for deliberate, thoughtful action.

He does not provide a blueprint for saving the world. Instead, he offers a set of attitudes and practices: intellectual humility, critical thinking, global solidarity, and inner awareness. Individuals cannot control global trends alone, but they can cultivate clarity about what is real and what is fantasy, resist manipulation, and engage constructively with others.

Harari urges readers to question comforting stories—whether national, religious, or technological—and to take responsibility for the stories they accept or propagate. The future will be shaped not only by algorithms and laboratories but also by the narratives billions of humans choose to believe.

Key Takeaways

• Humanity is in a transitional era where old ideological stories (especially liberal triumphalism) are under strain, while new coherent narratives suited to a high-tech, interconnected world have yet to emerge.
• Artificial intelligence and biotechnology threaten to disrupt labor markets, political systems, and even our understanding of what it means to be human, potentially creating a “useless class” and biologically enhanced elites.
• Data is becoming the most valuable resource of the 21st century; the struggle over who owns and controls data will be central to future inequalities and power structures.
• Digital surveillance and algorithmic decision-making challenge traditional notions of individual liberty and democratic legitimacy by enabling unprecedented prediction and manipulation of human behavior.
• Global problems—climate change, nuclear risk, pandemics, technological regulation—require global cooperation, yet political loyalty and identity remain largely national, religious, or tribal.
• Nationalism has constructive aspects (cohesion, solidarity) but becomes dangerous when it denies global responsibilities or rejects cooperation needed to address shared threats.
• Religions and secular ideologies alike are human-made stories that provide meaning and cohesion; none should be immune from critical scrutiny, especially when they conflict with scientific evidence or human rights.
• Immigration debates often conflate distinct questions about admission, assimilation, and mutual identity change; clearer distinctions can reduce confusion and moral outrage.
• Terrorism exerts power mainly through psychological impact rather than physical damage; disproportionate responses can strengthen rather than weaken terrorist goals.
• Large-scale wars between great powers have declined due to nuclear deterrence and economic interdependence, but new forms of warfare (cyber, autonomous weapons) pose emerging risks.
• Cultural and intellectual humility is crucial: no single civilization, religion, or ideology has all the answers, and moral insight has emerged from many traditions.
• Secularism is best understood as a commitment to evidence-based inquiry, human fallibility, compromise, and the reduction of suffering, not as automatic hostility to religion.
• Modern societies depend on distributed expertise; sustaining trust in scientific and professional institutions while encouraging critical thinking is a delicate but essential balance.
• Justice in a globalized economy requires new forms of international cooperation addressing cross-border labor, taxation, and environmental impacts, as well as historical inequalities.
• “Post-truth” politics exploits the information glut and algorithmic amplification of sensational content; strengthening media literacy and institutional safeguards for truth is vital.
• Science fiction both reflects and shapes societal fears about technology; it should inspire reflection but not be confused with realistic forecasts of AI and future risks.
• Education must shift from rote learning and fixed professions toward lifelong learning, mental flexibility, emotional resilience, and critical, ethical engagement with technology.
• Meaning is a human construction rooted in shared stories; recognizing this can free individuals to adopt narratives that foster compassion, responsibility, and realism rather than exclusion or denial.
• Meditation and other forms of systematic introspection can help individuals understand their own minds, resist manipulation, and cultivate inner stability in a rapidly changing world.
• The most important skills for the 21st century are not technical specifics but the capacity to adapt, learn, cooperate, and maintain clarity amid uncertainty and information overload.
• While no one can predict or control the future alone, individuals and societies can influence it by choosing their stories carefully, strengthening global solidarity, and aligning technological power with humane values.